Instrument-rated pilots are required to perform and log holding procedures at least once every six months, along with six instrument approaches and intercepting/tracking navigation courses to maintain IFR currency. Most pilots hit their peak of holding proficiency during instrument training, but the details tend to fade over time since holding procedures are rarely flown.
Sporty’s Instrument Rating Course, interactive scenario series includes holding entry procedures to help pilots learn the concept and maintain proficiency. Test your holding knowledge with these interactive scenarios:
https://media.flighttrainingcentral.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/06193246/holding-entry-with-heading-indicator.png7201280Flight Training Central Staffhttps://media.flighttrainingcentral.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/05155154/FTC-logo-horizontal-fianl.pngFlight Training Central Staff2024-02-17 08:55:112024-02-07 10:41:59IFR holding pattern interactive scenarios
Departures always require careful planning. Add mountainous terrain, instrument conditions (IMC), or any condition requiring maximum performance from the aircraft, and the stakes are even higher. Factors in departure planning will vary based on the class of aircraft one is flying (piston single, twin, jet, etc.), but there are common considerations that should be followed by all. One rule is to allow plenty of planning time, consider alternates even in good weather, and accept the fact that the best option very well could be to fly another day.
One aspect of IFR departurs is to accept the fact that the best option very well could be to fly another day.
First, use a Sectional Chart or sattelite imagery (even for IFR pilots) to get the “big picture” of surrounding terrain and potential obstructions. As they say, a picture is worth a thousand words, and you need a VFR chart to get that snapshot. The Sectional view also will give you an indication of the possibility of turbulence, by virtue of your departure path’s proximity to higher terrain and how the wind is blowing across those ridges. Take the opportunity to see where the more hospitable terrain is located and consider planning your departure in that direction.
A look at the Sectional Chart near Rifle and Eagle, CO indicate challenging elevations in all directions.
Departure procedures are designed primarily to provide obstacle clearance.
Next, determine whether a departure procedure is available for your airport. Departure procedures are designed primarily to provide obstacle clearance and should be used when published. These procedures come in two varieties: Obstacle Departure Procedures (ODPs) and Standard Instrument Departures (SIDs). SIDs are ATC procedures and always are printed graphically. ODPs can be printed graphically or textually. Departure procedures will be listed by airport in the IFR “Takeoff Minimums and Departure Procedures” section of the Terminal Procedures Publication (TPPs), or approach charts. If the procedure is textual, it will be described in section C of the approach charts; if an ODP has been developed solely for obstacle avoidance, it will be indicated with a “T” symbol on related instrument approach charts.
ODPs should be considered mandatory in any type of marginal conditions or at unfamiliar airports. Provided nothing else has been specifically assigned, ODPs may be flown without an ATC clearance. An important point surrounding the creation of departure procedures is that they assume normal aircraft performance and likely will require climb gradients steeper than those to which you are accustomed so double check your takeoff performance especially at high density altitude. It is up to you as the PIC to determine whether you can comply with the procedural requirements (for your own good) and to consider contingency plans.
At airports without published instrument approach/departure procedures, you will need to ensure that you can climb visually to a safe altitude. To determine a safe altitude, consult the Low Altitude En Route Charts (L-charts), a necessary part of your preflight preparation, which will allow you to determine minimum IFR altitudes for obstruction clearance.
Minimum En Route Altitudes (MEAs) or Minimum Obstruction Clearance Altitudes (MOCAs) are used for published routes, while Off-Route Obstruction Clearance Altitudes (OROCAs) are used for non-published routing. When departing an unfamiliar airport, reaching a published route at or above the MEA is always the safest bet even if it means a circling climb over the airport. It assures not only obstacle clearance, but also acceptable navigation and communication coverage with ATC. Published routes typically follow more friendly terrain, affording you more options for contingencies. MOCAs are lower altitudes that provide the same assurance of obstacle clearance as an MEA but only guarantee navigation coverage within 22nm of the VOR.
The low altitude enroute chart near Rifle Garfield County indicates MEAs and ORACAs above 10,000 feet.
In the event that you’re flying a direct, non-published route, keep in mind that OROCAs almost always will be higher than published MEAs and make no guarantee of ATC communication, radar or navigation coverage–nor do they consider the prospect of more challenging terrain.
The altitudes discussed so far work well when everything is performing normally, but what if something goes wrong? For dealing with emergencies following departure, the target altitude should be the Minimum Safe Altitude (MSA) published on the approach chart. The MSA provides at least 1,000 feet of clearance within a specified distance from the fix upon which a procedure is based. MSAs often are divided into sectors to provide greater flexibility, so take care in the preflight planning to ensure you have the right target altitude in mind, based on flight direction. While studying the approach chart, look for notices that may include advisories related to terrain.
Given the many books, videos and articles produced on weather considerations for departure, there is not sufficient room here to give the topic its deserved attention and respect. That being said, a thorough weather briefing is imperative. The eastern mountains tend to have more complicated weather patterns, which can include mountain obscurations, IFR conditions and slow-moving fronts. Turbulence, as well as updrafts and downdrafts, are of obvious concern near mountainous terrain. Remain upwind of ridges when possible or avoid being downwind and in close proximity to them.
Downdrafts can exceed the climb capability of aircraft. If experiencing a severe downdraft, try to visualize the wind pattern and make a turn out of the downdraft and toward lower terrain. Do not hesitate to use your emergency authority to leave your route if conditions deteriorate rapidly. The winds aloft information and pilot reports will provide good insight as to how the wind might be interacting with ridges.
Downdrafts can exceed the climb capability of aircraft.
In addition to turbulence considerations, utilize METARs, TAFs, and other forecasts to help gain a better understanding of current and forecasted conditions. I find the TAF Forecast Discussions particularly helpful, as they provide candid remarks from the forecaster as to how the report was created, factors considered, and even confidence level in the reports issued for the area.
When preparing to fly your departure, a clearance issued on the ground is always preferred. This is one less task to accomplish in the air and gives you the opportunity to establish airborne communication and radar contact more quickly. ATC does a great job of steering you away from trouble when they are in contact.
The word of caution worth repeating regarding airborne clearance is to be absolutely certain you can climb to an altitude, in visual conditions, that will ensure obstacle clearance and communication with ATC. Plan for a published route, even if this means extra mileage.
The widespread availability of terrain data on installed avionics, as well as on portables and iPads, makes it foolish not to invest in this technology if you’re flying in mountainous terrain. This information is invaluable when you can’t see what’s in front of you.
Finally, in mountainous terrain or challenging conditions, always depart as light as possible and build in extra margin for weather. This will enable your aircraft to achieve greater performance and will offer more alternatives if things don’t go as planned. Also, flying earlier in the day is generally a better option to avoid convective activity.
In mountainous terrain or challenging conditions, always depart as light as possible
Talk to the locals. Pilots sitting at the FBO have a wealth of information and insight that you won’t find published anywhere–a preferred route out of a certain area, unique ATC procedures, or even verbiage helpful in obtaining a clearance. Challenging departures are not the time to be overconfident—or shy about seeking help.
https://media.flighttrainingcentral.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/02144714/KEGE-Eagle-County-Regional-1-l-chart.jpeg8761306Eric Radtkehttps://media.flighttrainingcentral.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/05155154/FTC-logo-horizontal-fianl.pngEric Radtke2024-02-16 08:55:422024-02-02 14:53:26Planning an IFR departure
It’s something all pilots have to do during training for an instrument rating — pass the FAA Knowledge Test. While this test has gotten a bad rap over the years from some, the reality is it’s a non-event when you approach it with the proper mindset and use the right study tools. In this webinar video, veteran instructor and course developer, Bret Koebbe, will show how to use tried and true study methods using Sporty’s Instrument Rating Course to make the process an engaging and meaningful learning experience, and not just another exercise in rote memorization.
https://media.flighttrainingcentral.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/09/11121230/Test-prep-laptop-2-scaled.jpg17082560Flight Training Central Staffhttps://media.flighttrainingcentral.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/05155154/FTC-logo-horizontal-fianl.pngFlight Training Central Staff2024-02-15 14:00:182024-02-15 11:50:49Sporty’s webinar video: How to Pass the FAA Instrument Written
Editor’s Note: As part of Sporty’s IFR Month being celebrated in February – a four-week focus on the challenges and rewards of instrument flying – we’re pleased to bring you this valuable insight from Redbird Flight Simulations on perfecting holding patterns in a flight simulator.
There is no shortage of articles about using holds in the IFR system. However, in this article, we’ll focus specifically on departure and arrival holds and VCOA (visual climb over airport). While VCOA is not technically a hold, it falls in line with the same purpose of a hold in certain departure procedures.
These techniques can be practiced and perfected in a flight simulator, a valuable use of your preparation time.
Departure Holds
First, let’s look at a departure hold as depicted in the Riverside Muni (Riverside, California) Riverside Two Departure (Obstacle). The basic idea is that you take off and proceed to the Paradise (PDZ) VORTAC and perform a climbing turn in a hold until you reach 5,000′ MSL. At that point, you proceed on course as directed by air traffic control.
It’s a simple concept designed to get you well above the surrounding mountains that would shortly be in your flight path. If you take off from Runway 27, you intercept and track the PDZ R-030 radial inbound and make a direct entry tracking the PDZ R-078 radial outbound, using non-standard left turns. If you take off from Runway 9, you would intercept and track the PDZ R-093 radial inbound, execute a parallel entry, and then track the PDZ R-078 outbound.
As you are holding, you also perform a five hundred feet per minute climb. The tricky part is that you are expected to proceed on course after reaching 5,000′ MSL, so technically, this is sort of your “expect further clearance” information. Nothing says you have to declare entering the hold (unless you’ve been instructed otherwise), but it wouldn’t hurt to advise ATC that you are established and climbing to 5,000′ MSL.
This procedure is challenging in a flight simulator because of the need to maintain additional workload situational awareness. The mountains to the south are a safe distance away, but still, it will make you think about the surrounding terrain in ways you might not think of in Kansas.
Arrival Holds
The arrival hold to an IAF is common and could be assigned, or even required, if you lose communications. Santa Monica Municipal (KSMO) has a fix called DARTS, located on V-186, that serves as the intermediate fix for the RNAV 21 and the VOR-A approaches. The latter has an IAF at ELMOO (southeast), but if you’re flying V-186 coming in from the northwest, you’re not going to be sent to ELMOO and then have to reverse course and double-back.
For both of these approaches, your published altitudes will be between 4,100-4,200′ MSL, so if you were approaching out of 6,000′ MSL on lost comms, you’d have to get yourself established on a hold based on your approaching direction and either wait until your ETA or, begin the descending hold if you arrive after your ETA. Both are good exercises to practice in the simulator.
DARTS can be approached from four different directions on V-186 and V-459, so it’s a great mental exercise to work out the holding course approach math and type of entry. Both the RNAV Z and RNAV Y RWY 3 have an IAF called WAKER with a published altitude of 3,500′ MSL. It’s a GPS fix that is not published on the low enroute IFR chart.
The outbound course for the RNAV Z RWY 3 is 099 degrees, and the outbound course for the RNAV Y RWY 3 is 101 degrees. You would establish yourself on the appropriate inbound reciprocal course accordingly. This gives you a good planning workout in the simulator, as you are now in GPS tracking mode instead of VOR tracking mode.
Lastly, let’s look at VCOA as a departure option that’s slightly more formal than a SID. You can read more about it in the Aeronautical Information Manual, 5-2-9, Instrument Departure Procedures (DP) – Obstacle Departure Procedures (ODP), Standard Instrument Departures (SID), and Diverse Vector Areas (DVA).
Essentially, VCOA is designed to keep you from terrain more than 3 nautical miles away and get you going at a climb gradient of at least 200 feet per nautical mile. You take off and perform a climbing turn over the airport within 3nm of the field.
Now, there are some airports (e.g., KHHR, Hawthorne Municipal, Hawthorne, California) where pilots perform a climbing rectangular pattern while in the traffic pattern to gain sufficient altitude to join and fly the LA Special Flight Rules route just west of the field. They need to get to 4,500′ MSL to join the KSMO R-132 and track it northwestbound. A small plane likely cannot get to 4,500 MSL from KHHR in such a short distance, but this variation on VCOA works just fine.
In both cases, it’s important to remember the winds and how they will affect your potential change in direction as you climb. Both for terrain avoidance and LA Class B airspace avoidance (in the KHHR example), you want to maintain your situational awareness at all times.
You can practice all these maneuvers effectively in a flight simulator, where you can add winds and keep sharp for the times you may need to perform a hold in a slightly different context than just going missed. Challenge yourself to maintain your situational awareness and workload during these sessions, and then when you go fly them in the real-deal skies, you’ll feel right at home with aircraft control, safety, and CFIT avoidance.
https://media.flighttrainingcentral.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/08/05155618/redbird_jay_with_pilot_at_table.jpg466700Redbird Flight Simulationshttps://media.flighttrainingcentral.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/05155154/FTC-logo-horizontal-fianl.pngRedbird Flight Simulations2024-02-15 08:55:262024-02-06 15:17:473 holding scenarios to perfect in a flight simulator
What is the difference between an LPV and LNAV approach? Do you have to adhere to the altitudes on stepdown fixes when flying the glideslope on an LNAV+V approach? And on what segments of an ILS approach can you use an IFR-approved GPS for primary navigation? Learn the answers to these questions and more in our latest IFR video tip.
To take the next step, check out Sporty’s Instrument Rating Course, which includes 13 hours of in-flight HD cross-country and instrument approach video training and comprehensive written test preparation tools.
You can learn more about the course, as well as find a large collection of new articles, videos, quizzes and podcasts all geared towards IFR flying at https://www.sportys.com/IFR.
https://media.flighttrainingcentral.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/14113511/GPS-Approach-Tips.jpg10801920Bret Koebbehttps://media.flighttrainingcentral.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/05155154/FTC-logo-horizontal-fianl.pngBret Koebbe2024-02-14 08:55:342024-02-06 15:14:49RNAV/GPS Instrument Approach Tips – LPV, LNAV+V and more (video tip)
When controllers anticipate a delay at a clearance limit or fix, usually due to a high volume of traffic, weather, or both, pilots are usually issued a holding clearance. If the holding pattern assigned by ATC is charted, pilots are expected to hold as indicated. Patterns at the most generally used holding fixes are charted on Low or High Altitude En Route, Area, Departure Procedure, and Arrival Charts. When ATC issues a clearance requiring you to hold at a fix where a holding pattern is not charted, pilots are issued complete holding instructions. The holding instructions will include:
the direction from the fix
name of the fix, course
leg length (if distance instead of time)
direction of turns (if left turns are required)
the expect further clearance (EFC) time.
Let’s look at holding clearance example below to identify the various components (note the absence of turn direction indicates standard, right hand turns are expected):
Hold north (direction from the fix) of Volunteer on the 360 degree radial (name of VOR fix and course), five mile legs (leg length), expect further clearance at 15:50 zulu (EFC) time now, 15:40 zulu (current time is often issued as a courtesy so that pilots quickly know how long they may have to hold for fuel planning purposes).
Pilots are required to maintain the last assigned altitude unless a new altitude is specifically included in the holding clearance. Pilots are expected to hold on the inbound course using right turns unless instructed otherwide. In the example instructions above, the INBOUND course would be 180 degrees if holding on the 360 degree radial.
When executing a holding pattern above 14,000 feet, the inbound leg should be 1.5 minutes in duration. When at or below 14,000 feet, the inbound leg should be 1 minute. Timing of the outbound leg should begin abeam the holding fix or at the completion of the turn. Fly the first outbound leg at the appropriate standard duration, then adjust subsequent outbound legs so as to make the inbound leg the standard 1 or 1.5 minute duration. This will vary with wind.
Timing of the holding pattern should be adjusted on the outbound leg so that the inbound leg will be the standard duration.
GPS-equipped aircraft have some additional options for holding. Rather than being based on time, the leg lengths for GPS holding patterns are based on distances. The controller, or the applicable chart, specifies the length of the outbound leg. The end of the outbound leg is determined by the distance.
Charted holding procedure on the low altitude enroute chart with 5 mile legs specified.
Because the size of the holding pattern is directly proportional to the speed of the aircraft, maximum holding speeds in knots indicated airspeed (KIAS) have been designated for specific altitude ranges. Often pilots can avoid flying a holding pattern or reduce the length of time spent in the holding pattern, by slowing down on the way to the holding fix.
Maximum holding speeds in knots indicated.
Turns in the hold should be standard rate, but not more than 30 degrees. If you are using a flight director, the maximum bank angle is 25 degrees. Except when turning, you should compensate for the wind. Outbound you should triple the wind correction angle used to track the inbound course. This will distort the racetrack shape, but keep you inside the holding pattern protected airspace.
The racetrack pattern will be distored with appropriate wind correction.
The protected airspace is not charted, but it is shaped somewhat like and centered upon the holding pattern. This puts about 60% of the protected area on the holding side, so the majority of your maneuvering should be on this side.
The majority of your maneuvering should be on the hodling side as this is where the majority of the protected airspace exists.
Holding protected airspace is designed based in part on pilot compliance with three recommended holding pattern entry procedures.
Parallel Procedure. When approaching the holding fix from parrell sector, the parallel entry procedure would be to turn to a heading to parallel the holding course outbound on the nonholding side for one minute, turn in the direction of the holding pattern through more than 180 degrees, and return to the holding fix or intercept the holding course inbound.
When approaching the holding fix from anywhere in the teardrop sector, the teardrop entry procedure would be to fly to the fix, turn outbound to a heading for a 30 degree teardrop entry within the pattern (on the holding side) for a period of one minute, then turn in the direction of the holding pattern to intercept the inbound holding course.
When approaching the holding fix from anywhere in the direct sector, the direct entry procedure would be to fly directly to the fix and turn to follow the holding pattern.
To help determine which sector you fall within when approaching a holding fix, look at where the outbound course falls on your heading indicator or H-S-I when flying direct to the fix. Divide the indicator into three segments as depicted below. And for a standard right-turn hold, and you can visualize exactly what kind of entry is expected.
You can visualize exactly what kind of entry is expected when placing the outbound course on the heading indicator when flying direct to the fix.
The teardrop section is the smallest, only 70 degrees on the right of the nose. At the fix, turn to a heading 30 degrees from the outbound course toward the holding side for one minute. Then turn in the direction of the holding pattern to intercept the holding course.
The direct entry section is the largest, covering a 180-degree arc. Simply turn right outbound and fly the pattern.
The parallel segment is 110 degrees to the left of the nose. Turn to the outbound heading, correct for wind if known, fly for one minute, and then turn toward the holding pattern more than 180 degrees. Return to the holding fix or intercept the holding course inbound.
This method of visualizing the outbound course on the heading indicator is also referred to as the “thumb” method because placing your thumb to the right (for right-hand turns) or the left (for left-hand turns) will approximate the teardrop entry area as decpicted below.
Placing your thumb to the left or right of your current heading can help identify the correct holding entry procedure.
A non-standard holding pattern uses left turns, and the entry procedure diagram has to be flipped so the teardrop section is in the upper left. For non-standard left turns, use your left thumb to mark the 70-degree teardrop section, and the remaining sections fall into place. Right turns, right thumb.
The entry procedure diagram has to be flipped so the teardrop section is in the upper left for left hand turns
It’s worth noting that modern GPS navigators can be programmed for holding procedures and coupled with an autopilot, can also fully execute a hold. There are also devices available to help determine the correct entry.
IFR holding pattern interactive scenarios
/in IFR flying, Video Tips/by Flight Training Central StaffInstrument-rated pilots are required to perform and log holding procedures at least once every six months, along with six instrument approaches and intercepting/tracking navigation courses to maintain IFR currency. Most pilots hit their peak of holding proficiency during instrument training, but the details tend to fade over time since holding procedures are rarely flown.
Sporty’s Instrument Rating Course, interactive scenario series includes holding entry procedures to help pilots learn the concept and maintain proficiency. Test your holding knowledge with these interactive scenarios:
Planning an IFR departure
/in IFR flying, Tips and technique/by Eric RadtkeDepartures always require careful planning. Add mountainous terrain, instrument conditions (IMC), or any condition requiring maximum performance from the aircraft, and the stakes are even higher. Factors in departure planning will vary based on the class of aircraft one is flying (piston single, twin, jet, etc.), but there are common considerations that should be followed by all. One rule is to allow plenty of planning time, consider alternates even in good weather, and accept the fact that the best option very well could be to fly another day.
One aspect of IFR departurs is to accept the fact that the best option very well could be to fly another day.
First, use a Sectional Chart or sattelite imagery (even for IFR pilots) to get the “big picture” of surrounding terrain and potential obstructions. As they say, a picture is worth a thousand words, and you need a VFR chart to get that snapshot. The Sectional view also will give you an indication of the possibility of turbulence, by virtue of your departure path’s proximity to higher terrain and how the wind is blowing across those ridges. Take the opportunity to see where the more hospitable terrain is located and consider planning your departure in that direction.
A look at the Sectional Chart near Rifle and Eagle, CO indicate challenging elevations in all directions.
Departure procedures are designed primarily to provide obstacle clearance.
Next, determine whether a departure procedure is available for your airport. Departure procedures are designed primarily to provide obstacle clearance and should be used when published. These procedures come in two varieties: Obstacle Departure Procedures (ODPs) and Standard Instrument Departures (SIDs). SIDs are ATC procedures and always are printed graphically. ODPs can be printed graphically or textually. Departure procedures will be listed by airport in the IFR “Takeoff Minimums and Departure Procedures” section of the Terminal Procedures Publication (TPPs), or approach charts. If the procedure is textual, it will be described in section C of the approach charts; if an ODP has been developed solely for obstacle avoidance, it will be indicated with a “T” symbol on related instrument approach charts.
ODPs should be considered mandatory in any type of marginal conditions or at unfamiliar airports. Provided nothing else has been specifically assigned, ODPs may be flown without an ATC clearance. An important point surrounding the creation of departure procedures is that they assume normal aircraft performance and likely will require climb gradients steeper than those to which you are accustomed so double check your takeoff performance especially at high density altitude. It is up to you as the PIC to determine whether you can comply with the procedural requirements (for your own good) and to consider contingency plans.
At airports without published instrument approach/departure procedures, you will need to ensure that you can climb visually to a safe altitude. To determine a safe altitude, consult the Low Altitude En Route Charts (L-charts), a necessary part of your preflight preparation, which will allow you to determine minimum IFR altitudes for obstruction clearance.
Minimum En Route Altitudes (MEAs) or Minimum Obstruction Clearance Altitudes (MOCAs) are used for published routes, while Off-Route Obstruction Clearance Altitudes (OROCAs) are used for non-published routing. When departing an unfamiliar airport, reaching a published route at or above the MEA is always the safest bet even if it means a circling climb over the airport. It assures not only obstacle clearance, but also acceptable navigation and communication coverage with ATC. Published routes typically follow more friendly terrain, affording you more options for contingencies. MOCAs are lower altitudes that provide the same assurance of obstacle clearance as an MEA but only guarantee navigation coverage within 22nm of the VOR.
The low altitude enroute chart near Rifle Garfield County indicates MEAs and ORACAs above 10,000 feet.
In the event that you’re flying a direct, non-published route, keep in mind that OROCAs almost always will be higher than published MEAs and make no guarantee of ATC communication, radar or navigation coverage–nor do they consider the prospect of more challenging terrain.
The altitudes discussed so far work well when everything is performing normally, but what if something goes wrong? For dealing with emergencies following departure, the target altitude should be the Minimum Safe Altitude (MSA) published on the approach chart. The MSA provides at least 1,000 feet of clearance within a specified distance from the fix upon which a procedure is based. MSAs often are divided into sectors to provide greater flexibility, so take care in the preflight planning to ensure you have the right target altitude in mind, based on flight direction. While studying the approach chart, look for notices that may include advisories related to terrain.
Given the many books, videos and articles produced on weather considerations for departure, there is not sufficient room here to give the topic its deserved attention and respect. That being said, a thorough weather briefing is imperative. The eastern mountains tend to have more complicated weather patterns, which can include mountain obscurations, IFR conditions and slow-moving fronts. Turbulence, as well as updrafts and downdrafts, are of obvious concern near mountainous terrain. Remain upwind of ridges when possible or avoid being downwind and in close proximity to them.
Downdrafts can exceed the climb capability of aircraft. If experiencing a severe downdraft, try to visualize the wind pattern and make a turn out of the downdraft and toward lower terrain. Do not hesitate to use your emergency authority to leave your route if conditions deteriorate rapidly. The winds aloft information and pilot reports will provide good insight as to how the wind might be interacting with ridges.
Downdrafts can exceed the climb capability of aircraft.
In addition to turbulence considerations, utilize METARs, TAFs, and other forecasts to help gain a better understanding of current and forecasted conditions. I find the TAF Forecast Discussions particularly helpful, as they provide candid remarks from the forecaster as to how the report was created, factors considered, and even confidence level in the reports issued for the area.
When preparing to fly your departure, a clearance issued on the ground is always preferred. This is one less task to accomplish in the air and gives you the opportunity to establish airborne communication and radar contact more quickly. ATC does a great job of steering you away from trouble when they are in contact.
The word of caution worth repeating regarding airborne clearance is to be absolutely certain you can climb to an altitude, in visual conditions, that will ensure obstacle clearance and communication with ATC. Plan for a published route, even if this means extra mileage.
The widespread availability of terrain data on installed avionics, as well as on portables and iPads, makes it foolish not to invest in this technology if you’re flying in mountainous terrain. This information is invaluable when you can’t see what’s in front of you.
Finally, in mountainous terrain or challenging conditions, always depart as light as possible and build in extra margin for weather. This will enable your aircraft to achieve greater performance and will offer more alternatives if things don’t go as planned. Also, flying earlier in the day is generally a better option to avoid convective activity.
In mountainous terrain or challenging conditions, always depart as light as possible
Talk to the locals. Pilots sitting at the FBO have a wealth of information and insight that you won’t find published anywhere–a preferred route out of a certain area, unique ATC procedures, or even verbiage helpful in obtaining a clearance. Challenging departures are not the time to be overconfident—or shy about seeking help.
Sporty’s webinar video: How to Pass the FAA Instrument Written
/in Webinars/by Flight Training Central StaffIt’s something all pilots have to do during training for an instrument rating — pass the FAA Knowledge Test. While this test has gotten a bad rap over the years from some, the reality is it’s a non-event when you approach it with the proper mindset and use the right study tools. In this webinar video, veteran instructor and course developer, Bret Koebbe, will show how to use tried and true study methods using Sporty’s Instrument Rating Course to make the process an engaging and meaningful learning experience, and not just another exercise in rote memorization.
3 holding scenarios to perfect in a flight simulator
/in IFR flying/by Redbird Flight SimulationsEditor’s Note: As part of Sporty’s IFR Month being celebrated in February – a four-week focus on the challenges and rewards of instrument flying – we’re pleased to bring you this valuable insight from Redbird Flight Simulations on perfecting holding patterns in a flight simulator.
There is no shortage of articles about using holds in the IFR system. However, in this article, we’ll focus specifically on departure and arrival holds and VCOA (visual climb over airport). While VCOA is not technically a hold, it falls in line with the same purpose of a hold in certain departure procedures.
These techniques can be practiced and perfected in a flight simulator, a valuable use of your preparation time.
Departure Holds
First, let’s look at a departure hold as depicted in the Riverside Muni (Riverside, California) Riverside Two Departure (Obstacle). The basic idea is that you take off and proceed to the Paradise (PDZ) VORTAC and perform a climbing turn in a hold until you reach 5,000′ MSL. At that point, you proceed on course as directed by air traffic control.
It’s a simple concept designed to get you well above the surrounding mountains that would shortly be in your flight path. If you take off from Runway 27, you intercept and track the PDZ R-030 radial inbound and make a direct entry tracking the PDZ R-078 radial outbound, using non-standard left turns. If you take off from Runway 9, you would intercept and track the PDZ R-093 radial inbound, execute a parallel entry, and then track the PDZ R-078 outbound.
As you are holding, you also perform a five hundred feet per minute climb. The tricky part is that you are expected to proceed on course after reaching 5,000′ MSL, so technically, this is sort of your “expect further clearance” information. Nothing says you have to declare entering the hold (unless you’ve been instructed otherwise), but it wouldn’t hurt to advise ATC that you are established and climbing to 5,000′ MSL.
This procedure is challenging in a flight simulator because of the need to maintain additional workload situational awareness. The mountains to the south are a safe distance away, but still, it will make you think about the surrounding terrain in ways you might not think of in Kansas.
Arrival Holds
The arrival hold to an IAF is common and could be assigned, or even required, if you lose communications. Santa Monica Municipal (KSMO) has a fix called DARTS, located on V-186, that serves as the intermediate fix for the RNAV 21 and the VOR-A approaches. The latter has an IAF at ELMOO (southeast), but if you’re flying V-186 coming in from the northwest, you’re not going to be sent to ELMOO and then have to reverse course and double-back.
For both of these approaches, your published altitudes will be between 4,100-4,200′ MSL, so if you were approaching out of 6,000′ MSL on lost comms, you’d have to get yourself established on a hold based on your approaching direction and either wait until your ETA or, begin the descending hold if you arrive after your ETA. Both are good exercises to practice in the simulator.
DARTS can be approached from four different directions on V-186 and V-459, so it’s a great mental exercise to work out the holding course approach math and type of entry. Both the RNAV Z and RNAV Y RWY 3 have an IAF called WAKER with a published altitude of 3,500′ MSL. It’s a GPS fix that is not published on the low enroute IFR chart.
The outbound course for the RNAV Z RWY 3 is 099 degrees, and the outbound course for the RNAV Y RWY 3 is 101 degrees. You would establish yourself on the appropriate inbound reciprocal course accordingly. This gives you a good planning workout in the simulator, as you are now in GPS tracking mode instead of VOR tracking mode.
Related Content: The 5 A’s and T’s of Instrument Approaches
VCOA
Lastly, let’s look at VCOA as a departure option that’s slightly more formal than a SID. You can read more about it in the Aeronautical Information Manual, 5-2-9, Instrument Departure Procedures (DP) – Obstacle Departure Procedures (ODP), Standard Instrument Departures (SID), and Diverse Vector Areas (DVA).
Essentially, VCOA is designed to keep you from terrain more than 3 nautical miles away and get you going at a climb gradient of at least 200 feet per nautical mile. You take off and perform a climbing turn over the airport within 3nm of the field.
Now, there are some airports (e.g., KHHR, Hawthorne Municipal, Hawthorne, California) where pilots perform a climbing rectangular pattern while in the traffic pattern to gain sufficient altitude to join and fly the LA Special Flight Rules route just west of the field. They need to get to 4,500′ MSL to join the KSMO R-132 and track it northwestbound. A small plane likely cannot get to 4,500 MSL from KHHR in such a short distance, but this variation on VCOA works just fine.
In both cases, it’s important to remember the winds and how they will affect your potential change in direction as you climb. Both for terrain avoidance and LA Class B airspace avoidance (in the KHHR example), you want to maintain your situational awareness at all times.
You can practice all these maneuvers effectively in a flight simulator, where you can add winds and keep sharp for the times you may need to perform a hold in a slightly different context than just going missed. Challenge yourself to maintain your situational awareness and workload during these sessions, and then when you go fly them in the real-deal skies, you’ll feel right at home with aircraft control, safety, and CFIT avoidance.
RNAV/GPS Instrument Approach Tips – LPV, LNAV+V and more (video tip)
/in Video Tips/by Bret KoebbeWhat is the difference between an LPV and LNAV approach? Do you have to adhere to the altitudes on stepdown fixes when flying the glideslope on an LNAV+V approach? And on what segments of an ILS approach can you use an IFR-approved GPS for primary navigation? Learn the answers to these questions and more in our latest IFR video tip.
To take the next step, check out Sporty’s Instrument Rating Course, which includes 13 hours of in-flight HD cross-country and instrument approach video training and comprehensive written test preparation tools.
You can learn more about the course, as well as find a large collection of new articles, videos, quizzes and podcasts all geared towards IFR flying at https://www.sportys.com/IFR.
Understanding and Executing IFR Holding Procedures
/in Tips and technique/by Eric RadtkeWhen controllers anticipate a delay at a clearance limit or fix, usually due to a high volume of traffic, weather, or both, pilots are usually issued a holding clearance. If the holding pattern assigned by ATC is charted, pilots are expected to hold as indicated. Patterns at the most generally used holding fixes are charted on Low or High Altitude En Route, Area, Departure Procedure, and Arrival Charts. When ATC issues a clearance requiring you to hold at a fix where a holding pattern is not charted, pilots are issued complete holding instructions. The holding instructions will include:
Let’s look at holding clearance example below to identify the various components (note the absence of turn direction indicates standard, right hand turns are expected):
Hold north (direction from the fix) of Volunteer on the 360 degree radial (name of VOR fix and course), five mile legs (leg length), expect further clearance at 15:50 zulu (EFC) time now, 15:40 zulu (current time is often issued as a courtesy so that pilots quickly know how long they may have to hold for fuel planning purposes).
Pilots are required to maintain the last assigned altitude unless a new altitude is specifically included in the holding clearance. Pilots are expected to hold on the inbound course using right turns unless instructed otherwide. In the example instructions above, the INBOUND course would be 180 degrees if holding on the 360 degree radial.
When executing a holding pattern above 14,000 feet, the inbound leg should be 1.5 minutes in duration. When at or below 14,000 feet, the inbound leg should be 1 minute. Timing of the outbound leg should begin abeam the holding fix or at the completion of the turn. Fly the first outbound leg at the appropriate standard duration, then adjust subsequent outbound legs so as to make the inbound leg the standard 1 or 1.5 minute duration. This will vary with wind.
Timing of the holding pattern should be adjusted on the outbound leg so that the inbound leg will be the standard duration.
GPS-equipped aircraft have some additional options for holding. Rather than being based on time, the leg lengths for GPS holding patterns are based on distances. The controller, or the applicable chart, specifies the length of the outbound leg. The end of the outbound leg is determined by the distance.
Charted holding procedure on the low altitude enroute chart with 5 mile legs specified.
Because the size of the holding pattern is directly proportional to the speed of the aircraft, maximum holding speeds in knots indicated airspeed (KIAS) have been designated for specific altitude ranges. Often pilots can avoid flying a holding pattern or reduce the length of time spent in the holding pattern, by slowing down on the way to the holding fix.
Maximum holding speeds in knots indicated.
Turns in the hold should be standard rate, but not more than 30 degrees. If you are using a flight director, the maximum bank angle is 25 degrees. Except when turning, you should compensate for the wind. Outbound you should triple the wind correction angle used to track the inbound course. This will distort the racetrack shape, but keep you inside the holding pattern protected airspace.
The racetrack pattern will be distored with appropriate wind correction.
The protected airspace is not charted, but it is shaped somewhat like and centered upon the holding pattern. This puts about 60% of the protected area on the holding side, so the majority of your maneuvering should be on this side.
The majority of your maneuvering should be on the hodling side as this is where the majority of the protected airspace exists.
Holding protected airspace is designed based in part on pilot compliance with three recommended holding pattern entry procedures.
Parallel Procedure. When approaching the holding fix from parrell sector, the parallel entry procedure would be to turn to a heading to parallel the holding course outbound on the nonholding side for one minute, turn in the direction of the holding pattern through more than 180 degrees, and return to the holding fix or intercept the holding course inbound.
When approaching the holding fix from anywhere in the teardrop sector, the teardrop entry procedure would be to fly to the fix, turn outbound to a heading for a 30 degree teardrop entry within the pattern (on the holding side) for a period of one minute, then turn in the direction of the holding pattern to intercept the inbound holding course.
When approaching the holding fix from anywhere in the direct sector, the direct entry procedure would be to fly directly to the fix and turn to follow the holding pattern.
To help determine which sector you fall within when approaching a holding fix, look at where the outbound course falls on your heading indicator or H-S-I when flying direct to the fix. Divide the indicator into three segments as depicted below. And for a standard right-turn hold, and you can visualize exactly what kind of entry is expected.
You can visualize exactly what kind of entry is expected when placing the outbound course on the heading indicator when flying direct to the fix.
The teardrop section is the smallest, only 70 degrees on the right of the nose. At the fix, turn to a heading 30 degrees from the outbound course toward the holding side for one minute. Then turn in the direction of the holding pattern to intercept the holding course.
The direct entry section is the largest, covering a 180-degree arc. Simply turn right outbound and fly the pattern.
The parallel segment is 110 degrees to the left of the nose. Turn to the outbound heading, correct for wind if known, fly for one minute, and then turn toward the holding pattern more than 180 degrees. Return to the holding fix or intercept the holding course inbound.
This method of visualizing the outbound course on the heading indicator is also referred to as the “thumb” method because placing your thumb to the right (for right-hand turns) or the left (for left-hand turns) will approximate the teardrop entry area as decpicted below.
Placing your thumb to the left or right of your current heading can help identify the correct holding entry procedure.
A non-standard holding pattern uses left turns, and the entry procedure diagram has to be flipped so the teardrop section is in the upper left. For non-standard left turns, use your left thumb to mark the 70-degree teardrop section, and the remaining sections fall into place. Right turns, right thumb.
The entry procedure diagram has to be flipped so the teardrop section is in the upper left for left hand turns
It’s worth noting that modern GPS navigators can be programmed for holding procedures and coupled with an autopilot, can also fully execute a hold. There are also devices available to help determine the correct entry.
Are you ready to practice? Test your holding pattern entry knowledge in this interactive holding exercise from Sporty’s Instrument Rating Course.